Publication date: December 01, 2025
Investment Fund Company
An Investment Fund Company (TFI) is the governing body of an investment fund that manages the fund and represents it externally. Furthermore, pursuant to Article 14 of the Act of 27 May 2004 on Investment Funds and Alternative Investment Fund Management (Journal of Laws of 2004, No. 146, item 1546, as amended), only an Investment Fund Company has the right to establish an investment fund. Only a joint-stock company can obtain TFI status.
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Publication date: December 01, 2025
The defendant, as a party in Polish civil proceedings, is a subject of rights and obligations. Their role in achieving the goal of each proceedings — the issuance of a just judgment that concludes the case—is indispensable. As the subject of the lawsuit, they respond to the opposing party’s arguments, thus assisting the court in fulfilling its task of fairly resolving the dispute. The defendant offers the justice system their perspective, which is essential because the justice system’s clear duty is to hear both sides; otherwise, it would be impossible to speak of a fair trial in which citizens have the opportunity and right to defend their rights and interests. Far from being a passive recipient of allegations, they are an active participant in the process, influencing the shape and course of the entire procedure and its outcome through the exercise of their rights. It should also be noted that the defendant’s overall rights and obligations constitute the principle of equality of parties in civil proceedings, which precludes denying one party access to necessary legal tools, for example, by excluding the possibility of appointing a legal representative or the ability to submit evidentiary motions. These rights extend beyond court proceedings and also include the use of amicable dispute resolution methods, such as mediation. Mediation naturally serves to avoid lengthy and costly litigation by reaching a settlement that is at least partially satisfactory to both parties. However, court proceedings, similarly, cannot limit the rights of one party at the expense of the other. The purpose of this study is to review the defendant’s rights in both arbitration and pre-trial proceedings, as well as in selected areas of court proceedings (hearings).
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Publication date: December 01, 2025
BREXIT AND BUYER AND SELLER OBLIGATIONS
With its exit from the European Union, the United Kingdom has ended the lack of advanced trade formalization between EU member states and the United Kingdom. It does not benefit from full access to the EU single market and customs union, nor from international agreements (including free trade agreements) that the EU has concluded with other third countries. This entails special requirements that must be met by businesses importing works of art into the customs territory of the European Union.
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Publication date: November 18, 2025
Cryptoassets, of which a token is a type, are digital representations of value or rights that can be transferred and stored electronically using distributed ledger technology or similar technologies. There are three types of tokens: payment or e-money tokens, which serve as a medium of exchange or a store of value; investment tokens, which perform functions analogous to securities; and utility tokens, which provide access to services or products, somewhat similar to vouchers. There are also hybrid tokens, for example, combining the features of cryptocurrencies and real-world assets. These tokens operate by embodying the value of a specific real-world asset and combining it with the flexibility and efficiency of cryptocurrencies. The goal is to provide access to blockchain technology while simultaneously providing a solid link to the underlying tangible asset.
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Publication date: November 18, 2025
With technological advancements, scams involving phishing, smishing, spoofing, and CLI spoofing are gaining popularity. While they are not a new phenomenon, AI technologies certainly allow for increasingly faster and more effective image and voice impersonation, making impersonation easier. Furthermore, the latest tools help perpetrators tailor their manipulation techniques to specific individuals. Such activities serve a variety of purposes, from extorting personal data or stealing logins and passwords to persuading or intimidating victims into unfavorable financial transactions. The Polish Act on Combating Abuse in Electronic Communications aims to create mechanisms to limit these harmful phenomena. It aims to increase user protection against harmful activities carried out via communication technologies, such as text message fraud, data theft, and unfavorable financial transactions.
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